The Art of War, Chapter 10: 地形 (Terrain)

Chapter 9 taught how to read an army on the march and what its behaviour reveals. Chapter 10 turns to the ground itself. It sorts terrain into six types, then argues that most defeats are not caused by terrain at all but by the commander.

Like every chapter in this series, it has three parts: the reading, an analysis of what the chapter argues, and how finance professionals can interpret it in their own work. The original text follows the Chinese Wikisource edition of 《孫子兵法》. The Chinese and English explanations are Claude’s own paraphrase.

Reading the chapter

10.1

原文

孫子曰：凡地形有通者、有掛者、有支者、有隘者、有險者、有遠者。我可以往，彼可以來，曰通。通形者，先居高陽，利糧道，以戰則利。

中文解說

孫子說：地形大致有六種：通、掛、支、隘、險、遠。我方可以去、敵方也可以來的地形，叫做「通」。在通形之地，要先佔據向陽的高處，保持糧道暢通，這樣作戰就有利。

English

Ground comes in six types: open, entangling, stalemate, narrow, steep and distant. Ground that both sides can enter freely is called open (通). On open ground, take the high, sunlit position first and keep your supply route clear. Then fighting favours you.

Because anyone can come and go, open ground rewards whoever gets there first and is best supplied.

10.2

原文

可以往，難以返，曰掛。掛形者，敵無備，出而勝之；敵若有備，出而不勝，難以返，不利。

中文解說

可以進去、卻很難退回來的地形，叫做「掛」。在掛形之地，如果敵人沒有防備，出擊就能取勝；如果敵人有防備，出擊卻不能取勝，又難以退回，就很不利。

English

Ground that is easy to enter but hard to leave is called entangling (掛). If the enemy is unprepared, go out and win. If the enemy is prepared and you fail to win, you cannot get back, and that is bad.

The test is the exit. The move is only sound if success is likely, because retreat is not available.

10.3

原文

我出而不利，彼出而不利，曰支。支形者，敵雖利我，我無出也，引而去之，令敵半出而擊之，利。

中文解說

我方出擊不利、敵方出擊也不利的地形，叫做「支」。在支形之地，即使敵人用利益引誘我，我也不要出擊；應該帶兵撤離，等敵人出動一半時再回擊，這樣才有利。

English

Ground where it is bad for you to advance and bad for the enemy to advance is called stalemate (支). Even if the enemy offers a bait, do not go out. Withdraw, and strike when half of the enemy force has come out.

10.4

原文

隘形者，我先居之，必盈之以待敵。若敵先居之，盈而勿從，不盈而從之。險形者，我先居之，必居高陽以待敵；若敵先居之，引而去之，勿從也。

中文解說

在狹窄的隘形之地，如果我先佔據，一定要用重兵把隘口堵滿，等待敵人。如果敵人先佔據，且已用兵堵滿，就不要去攻；如果沒有堵滿，就可以攻上去。在險峻的險形之地，如果我先佔據，一定要佔住向陽的高處，等待敵人；如果敵人先佔據，就帶兵撤離，不要去追打。

English

On narrow ground (隘), if you hold it first, fill it fully and wait. If the enemy holds it first and has filled it, do not follow. If they have not filled it, you may. On steep ground (險), if you hold it first, take the high, sunlit position and wait. If the enemy holds it first, withdraw and do not follow.

In both cases the advantage belongs to whoever arrives first. A late arrival should not try to take a position that has been properly taken.

10.5

原文

遠形者，勢均，難以挑戰，戰而不利。凡此六者，地之道也，將之至任，不可不察也。

中文解說

在距離遙遠的遠形之地，如果雙方實力相當，就不宜去挑戰，勉強開戰對自己不利。以上六種，是利用地形的原則，是將領最重要的責任，不能不仔細考察。

English

On distant ground (遠), when the two sides are evenly matched, it is hard to provoke a fight and unwise to fight at all. These six are the principles of the ground. They are the commander's heaviest responsibility and must be examined (察) with care.

10.6

原文

故兵有走者、有弛者、有陷者、有崩者、有亂者、有北者。凡此六者，非天之災，將之過也。

中文解說

軍隊有六種失敗的情況：走、弛、陷、崩、亂、北。這六種，不是天災或地形造成的，而是將領的過失。

English

An army can fail in six ways: flight, slackness, collapse, ruin, disorder and rout. None of these is a disaster sent by heaven. Each one is the commander's fault.

This is the turn in the chapter. After six types of ground, the text names six failures and puts the blame on the person in charge.

10.7

原文

夫勢均，以一擊十，曰走；卒强吏弱，曰弛；吏强卒弱，曰陷；

中文解說

在雙方條件相當時，卻以一擊十而敗逃，叫做「走」；士兵強悍而軍官懦弱，叫做「弛」；軍官強悍而士兵懦弱，叫做「陷」。

English

When the sides are evenly matched, sending one against ten ends in flight (走). When the troops are strong and the officers weak, the army goes slack (弛). When the officers are strong and the troops weak, the army sinks (陷).

10.8

原文

大吏怒而不服，遇敵懟而自戰，將不知其能，曰崩；將弱不嚴，教道不明，吏卒無常，陳兵縱橫，曰亂；將不能料敵，以少合衆，以弱擊強，兵無選鋒，曰北。凡此六者，敗之道也，將之至任，不可不察也。

中文解說

高級軍官怨怒不服從，遇到敵人就憤憤然擅自出戰，主將又不了解他們的能力，叫做「崩」；將領懦弱、不嚴明，訓練教導不清楚，官兵關係沒有常規，布陣雜亂無章，叫做「亂」；將領不能判斷敵情，以少數兵力迎戰多數，以弱兵攻擊強敵，又沒有挑選精銳的先鋒部隊，叫做「北」。這六種，是導致失敗的途徑，是將領最重要的責任，不能不仔細考察。

English

When senior officers are angry and disobedient, and fight on their own after meeting the enemy out of resentment, and the commander does not know their abilities, the army collapses (崩). When the commander is weak and lax, training and instruction are unclear, officers and troops have no steady rules and the formation is a mess, the army is in disorder (亂). When the commander cannot judge the enemy, matches a small force against a large one, sends the weak against the strong and has no picked vanguard, the army is routed (北). These six are the ways to lose, and again they fall on the commander to examine (察).

Note the pattern. Mismatched strength, unclear rules, poor judgment of the enemy and no elite core are all failures of command and organisation.

10.9

原文

夫地形者，兵之助也。料敵制勝，計險厄遠近，上將之道也。知此而用戰者必勝，不知此而用戰者必敗。

中文解說

地形是用兵的輔助條件。判斷敵情、制定取勝的辦法，並計算地形的險阻與遠近，這是高明將領的職責。懂得這些而作戰的，一定能勝；不懂這些而作戰的，一定失敗。

English

Terrain is an aid to the army. Judging the enemy, working out how to win, and calculating (計) the dangers and distances of the ground are the work of a superior commander. Fight with this knowledge and you will win. Fight without it and you will lose.

The word is 助, aid. Terrain helps, but it does not win the battle by itself. Whether 必 should be read as a guarantee or as a strong tendency is a matter of reading. Claude takes it as emphasis, not certainty.

10.10

原文

故戰道必勝，主曰無戰，必戰可也；戰道不勝，主曰必戰，無戰可也。是故進不求名，退不避罪，唯民是保，而利合於主，國之寶也。

中文解說

所以，依照戰爭的規律必定能勝時，即使君主說不要打，也可以堅持去打；依照戰爭的規律不能取勝時，即使君主說一定要打，也可以不打。因此，進軍不為求取名聲，退兵不怕被治罪，只求保全百姓，並使利益符合君主的要求，這樣的將領是國家的珍寶。

English

If the way of war points to victory, the commander may fight even when the ruler says not to. If the way of war points to defeat, the commander may refuse even when the ruler says to fight. A commander who advances without seeking fame, retreats without avoiding blame, and cares only to protect the people and serve the ruler's real interest is a treasure of the state.

This passage is often read as permission to disobey orders. The qualifier matters: it applies only when the assessment is clear, and the motive must be the state's interest, not personal reputation.

10.11

原文

視卒如嬰兒，故可以與之赴深溪；視卒如愛子，故可與之俱死。厚而不能使，愛而不能令，亂而不能治，譬若驕子，不可用也。

中文解說

把士兵當作嬰兒般照顧，士兵就肯跟著你赴深溪險地；把士兵當作愛子般愛護，士兵就肯與你同生共死。但如果只是厚待卻不能指使，只是溺愛卻不能號令，士兵犯亂卻不能懲治，就像被寵壞的孩子，是不能用來作戰的。

English

Treat the troops like infants and they will follow you into deep valleys. Treat them like your own children and they will die beside you. But if you are generous and cannot direct them, loving and cannot command them, or they are disorderly and you cannot restore order, they are like spoiled children and are of no use.

Care and authority have to come together. Either one alone fails.

10.12

原文

知吾卒之可以擊，而不知敵之不可擊，勝之半也；知敵之可擊，而不知吾卒之不可以擊，勝之半也；知敵之可擊，知吾卒之可以擊，而不知地形之不可以戰，勝之半也。故知兵者，動而不迷，舉而不窮。故曰：知彼知己，勝乃不殆；知天知地，勝乃可全。

中文解說

只知道我軍可以進攻，卻不知道敵人是否不可攻擊，勝算只有一半；只知道敵人可以攻擊，卻不知道我軍是否不能進攻，勝算也只有一半；知道敵人可以攻擊，也知道我軍可以進攻，卻不知道地形不適合作戰，勝算還是只有一半。所以懂得用兵的人，行動不會迷惑，措施變化無窮。因此說：了解敵人、了解自己，勝利就不會有危險；了解天時、了解地利，勝利就可以完整。

English

Knowing your troops can attack but not knowing whether the enemy can be attacked gives half a victory. Knowing the enemy can be attacked but not knowing whether your troops can attack gives half. Knowing both but not knowing that the ground is unfit for battle also gives half. So one who knows war moves without confusion and acts without running out of options. Know the enemy and know yourself, and victory is not in danger. Know heaven and know earth, and victory can be complete.

The three halves build a ladder: yourself, the enemy, then the ground. The closing line adds a level to the famous saying from Chapter 3. Reading 勝乃可全 as complete victory is the usual view, though some commentators read it as victory that is whole, meaning without avoidable loss.

Analysis: what the chapter argues

Terrain is classified by access and advantage. 10.1 to 10.5 sort ground by who can enter, who can leave, and who benefits from moving first. Open ground favours speed and supply (10.1). Entangling ground punishes failure because the exit is closed (10.2). Stalemate ground punishes whoever moves first (10.3). Narrow and steep ground reward early arrival (10.4). Distant ground discourages action between equals (10.5).

Do not be baited. 10.3 says to refuse an offered advantage on stalemate ground and withdraw. The enemy’s offer is a way to pull you out of position.

The six failures belong to the commander. 10.6 states the thesis: flight, slackness, collapse, ruin, disorder and rout are not acts of heaven. 10.7 and 10.8 then describe each as a mismatch or a gap in command: bad odds, officers and troops out of balance, a hostile senior group, weak instruction, and no judgment of the enemy.

Terrain is an aid, not the cause. 10.9 calls terrain an aid (助) and gives the commander the job of judging the enemy, planning the win, and calculating risks, distances and obstacles. The passage says that the commander who does this wins and the one who does not loses. How absolute 必 is meant to be is a matter of interpretation.

Judgment can override instruction, within limits. 10.10 allows the commander to disobey the ruler when the way of war is clear. This is the most contested passage in the chapter. Readers disagree on how much authority it grants. The text itself ties the permission to a motive: no search for fame, no avoidance of blame, and a concern for the people.

Care without command fails. 10.11 says that kindness alone produces troops who are of no use. Authority and care have to be held together.

Victory is a ladder of knowledge. 10.12 gives three half-victories: knowing only your side, knowing only the enemy’s weakness, or ignoring the ground. The last line adds heaven and earth to the earlier knowledge of the enemy and of yourself.

How finance professionals can read it

This section is Claude’s interpretation. Sun Tzu wrote about armies, and none of the mappings below are his. This chapter has two halves that work differently: terrain types that describe the situation, and failure modes that describe the decision maker. The failure modes are the more useful half for finance.

Investing

• Classify the market before choosing the move. Treat the six terrains as a rough analogy. Open ground is a liquid, widely traded market where anyone can enter and exit and speed and funding matter (10.1). Entangling ground is an illiquid or locked position that is easy to buy and hard to sell (10.2). Stalemate ground is a crowded trade where moving first is penalised (10.3). Narrow and steep ground are positions where early arrival matters, such as a scarce asset or a regulatory chokepoint (10.4).
• Ask how you get out before you go in. 10.2 is a note on liquidity risk. Size an illiquid position as if exit will not be possible, and require a stronger case than a liquid one would need.
• Be wary of the offered bait. 10.3 can be read as a caution against chasing a trade that is being pushed at you, such as a hot allocation or a story from the seller. This is an analogy. It is not a rule against buying what others are selling.
• Do not fight on distant ground between equals. In 10.5, a distant market where you have no edge and the other side is equally strong is a poor place to take an active bet.

Raising funds

• Know which kind of ground the raise is on. A hot market is open ground and rewards speed and preparation. A cold market may be stalemate ground, where the right move is to wait, conserve cash and not accept bad terms because someone offers a cheque (10.3).
• Avoid entangling terms. Structures that are easy to sign and hard to leave, such as heavy covenants, restrictive rights or tight security, match 10.2. Read the exit conditions before the headline price. Legal counsel should review these terms.
• Be first where first matters. In a narrow or steep market, such as a small group of specialist investors, early and well-prepared contact is an advantage (10.4).
• Check that care and authority are balanced in the team. 10.11 applies to a founder team: a management group that is well treated but not directed, or directed but not trusted, will not execute the plan the investors funded.

M&A

• Name the terrain of the deal. A competitive auction is open ground. A deal with irreversible commitments or a hard-to-unwind integration is entangling ground (10.2). A negotiation in which both sides lose by moving first is stalemate ground (10.3). Choose tactics to match.
• Match the buyer’s team to the task. The failure modes in 10.7 and 10.8 can be read as questions about the deal team: weak seniors with strong juniors, strong seniors with weak juniors, an angry senior group that acts alone, unclear instructions, and no judgment of the counterparty. Each can sink a transaction on ground that was otherwise fine.
• Do not send a small force against a large one. 10.8 warns against matching the weak against the strong with no selected core. A thin deal team against a well-resourced counterparty, with no experienced lead, fits the warning.
• Keep the ability to walk away. 10.10 can be read as an argument for giving the deal lead a real right to decline when the case is not met, even under pressure from above. Whether and when that is permitted is a governance matter. It sits within the firm’s own rules, approval limits and legal duties.

Fund management and risk

• Separate bad luck from bad management. 10.6 says the six failures are not acts of heaven. A drawdown can be assessed against that: was it a market event, or was it a position size, concentration, process or control failure that the manager owned?
• Check the structure of the team. The pairings in 10.7 apply to a firm where senior staff and junior staff are not balanced in strength, so the risk function and the front office do not act as one.
• Act on the numbers, not on the mood. 10.10 describes a person who advances without seeking fame and retreats without avoiding blame. For a portfolio manager, that means cutting a position that has failed its own test, even if the cost is reputational, and holding one that is sound, even if it is unpopular. This is an analogy. Mandates, limits and compliance rules still apply.

Across all three

• Name the terrain first. Before choosing a tactic, state whether the situation is open, entangling, stalemate, narrow, steep or distant, and note what that implies about timing and exit.
• Treat failures as the decision maker’s responsibility. 10.6 puts blame on the commander. After any loss, first look for what the decision maker controlled before blaming the market.
• Keep care and authority together. 10.11 says that either alone produces a team that cannot be used.
• Count the three halves. 10.12 asks whether you know your side, the other side and the ground. If one is missing, treat the case as half proven.

Questions to carry into the next chapter

Chapter 11 (九地) continues from terrain to nine situations that an army can find itself in, each with its own right response and its own effect on morale.

• Which of the six terrains describes your current position, and how would you leave it if you were wrong?
• When did you last lose money or time and blame the market before checking your own process?
• Would you have the discipline to cut or decline a position when it would cost you credit, and do you have the authority to do so?